The Dental Induced Bacteraemia

The Dental Induced Bacteraemia Your Uncle not the same as last time who has been taking clopidogrel for a number of years approaches you, a dental student, to explain something to him. After two weeks of weariness and fever, his doctor recently diagnosed Infective Endocarditus by blood cultures. An echocardiogram indicated a bicuspid aortic valve, and listening to the chest using a stethoscope the doctor could also detect a slight murmur. His doctor had asked him whether he had had any dental treatment recently. He admitted that he had not seen a dentist for a number of years and a cursory investigation revealed dental caries and inflammation of the gums. His reason for avoiding the dentist was because of bleeding in the mouth following visits. Your Uncle was quizzical about a number of things and has asked for your advice. He wants to know what information the echocardiogram and stethoscope can reveal. Further, he wants to understand the connection between oral health and an individuals general medical condition. Specifically, what oral bacteria are present, what roles do they play in oral biology, how they could cause systemic problems, and what sort of strategies could be employed to prevent infection. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Working in your groups, generate a list of leaning outcomes for this topic and return an individual copy by 23rd November by email to [emailprotected] These learning outcomes will be assessed, and intended learning outcomes returned to assist you with your report. Individually write a 2000 word manuscript in a scientific manner addressing the learning outcomes by 7th January (2013) and upload via QMplus. Please note that with QMplus the time cut-off is 23:55. Learning Outcomes 1. To identify the connection between clopidogrel and excessive bleeding gums. 2. To describe normal and abnormal heart valve formations. 3. To understand and describe the information that echocardiograms and stethoscope can provide regarding heart function. 4. To explain how oral derived bacterial flora can colonise heart valves. 5. To explain why the heart valves are susceptible to bacterial colonisation. 6. To describe when prophylactic antibiotics should be prescribed prior to oral treatments. Introduction Bacteraemia is a condition that is caused when bacteria enters the blood stream. When large amount of bacteria are present in the blood it can cause infections such as meningitis, pericarditis and endocarditus. Individuals with heart valve disorders, prosthetic joints, chronic diseases or weakened immune system are at increased risk of developing infections during Bacteraemia. Dental induced Bacteraemia is caused by minor injury from tooth brushing or from dental procedures. In the above problem based learning scenario we have been presented with our uncle who has been taking Clopidogrel for a number of years and has now been diagnosed with Infective Endocarditis by blood cultures. Below I will expand on the proposed learning outcomes. [2] FIG.1Identify the connection between Clopidogrel and excessive bleeding gums. Clopidogrel is an oral antiplatelet drug which reduces the risk of blood clots forming. It works by preventing Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which causes platelets aggregation, from binding to its P2Y12 receptors on platelets and stops activation of the glycoprotein GPIIb/IIIa complex. This prevention reduces the likelihood of clots forming. [1] [3]Source:Harvey, R; Champe, P Lippincott illustrated reviews: Pharmacology, 4th edition. LWW: 2009. Blood clots can be very dangerous as they can cause blockages of blood vessels reducing the blood supply to an organ. A reduction in blood flow to the brain or heart can cause a stroke or heart attack. This explains Clopidogrels biggest use in patients who have had a recent heart attack or stroke; it helps to stop a reoccurrence. [1] Taking Clopidogrel therefore can cause excessive bleeding gums. If a blood vessel ruptures when brushing the teeth, through dental treatment or even by eating the gums will carry on bleeding for longer than usual because of the lack of platelet aggregation. http://birthnow.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Clopidogrel.gif Describe normal and abnormal heart valve formations. A healthy human heart consists of four chambers; two upper atria and two lower ventricles and four valves; two semilunar and two atrioventricular valves. The aortic and pulmonic valves are both semilunar valves and found in the arteries leaving the heart. The tricuspid and mitral valves are the atrioventricular valves and are found between the atria and ventricles. [5] Valves are made up of cusps which basically act as flaps or leaflets that are responsible for the one way flow of blood going into and out of a ventricle. Each valve has three leaflets, except the mitral valve, which only has two. [4] FIG.3Strong fibrous cords called chordae tendineae also known as heart strings are attached to the papillary muscles found on the floor of the ventricles and they act as anchors to stop the valves from inverting back into the atria. When the valve closes the papillary muscles contract and tenses the chordae tendineae to ensure the one way flow of blood. The valves are also supported and surrounded by a fibrous skeleton called annuli that also acts as another anchor. http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/transport_system/heart-valves.jpg [6] FIG.4Blood flows from the right and left atria into the ventricles through the open tricuspid and mitral valves respectively. When the ventricles are full, the tricuspid and mitral valves shut. The ventricles now begin to contract and the pulmonic and aortic valves are forced open and blood is pumped out. Blood from the right ventricle passes through the open pulmonic valve into the pulmonary artery and carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs while blood from the left ventricle is oxygenated and travels through the open aortic valve into the aorta and goes to the rest of the body. This happens in a cycle, between heartbeats the ventricles will then relax, the semilunar valves will close and the atrioventricular valves will open and allow blood from the body and lungs to enter the heart. [7]http://mitral-valve-repair.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/heart-valves_heart-chambers.jpg Heart valves can however malfunction in several ways. Abnormal heart valve formations fall into two main groups; Regurgitation and Stenosis. Regurgitation of the valves is when they fail to close properly which causes the backward leakage of blood, this is often happens as a result of coronary heart disease, rheumatic heart disease or because or bacterial and viral infections including infective endocarditus. [8] Mitral regurgitation is the most common heart valve disorder being found in 20% of adults over the age of 55. [9] The backward leakage of blood causes an increase in atrial pressure and the wall of the left atrium will thicken by hypertrophy and possibly dilate. The pulmonary venous pressure will also rise which produces pulmonary oedema (fluid accumulation in the air spaces).It also reduces the blood supply to the rest of the so the left ventricle will also become thicker and the heart rate will increase to try and maintain normal cardiac output. Symptoms include shortness of breath, chest pains, dizziness and the pulse becomes faster. [10] [11] Stenosis of the heart valves occurs when the valve is narrowed and obstructs the forward flow of blood, it is usually a result of a congenital defect which has caused the valve to become inflamed or calcified. [12] FIG.5 Aortic Stenosis Aortic valve Stenosis is one of the most common valve disorders, when the valve doesnt open correctly there is reduced blood flow from the left ventricle into the aorta. In severe cases the walls of the left ventricle will become thicker as it has to work harder to maintain cardiac output into the aorta. Symptoms include dizziness, chest pain and an irregular heart beat. If the condition worsens it can lead to heart failure and more uncommonly to endocarditus.http://www.heart-valve-surgery.com/Images/aortic-stenosispicture-275.jpg Aortic Stenosis develops over time because or turbulent blood flow through a usually bicuspid aortic valve. Calcific valvular disease is an inflammatory process and the biggest cause of the disorder, calcification of the valve makes it very stiff and makes it difficult for the valve to open easily. Again as with regurgitation rheumatic fever and endocarditis are also causes of Stenosis. [11] [12] Valve deformations are more common in the left side of the heart but they do also occur in the right hand side. Stenosis and regurgitation can affect all four valves and not only the two mentioned above. [13] Other abnormal valve formations are congenital heart valve diseases which are those present at birth when the aortic or pulmonary valves dont form properly. Understand and describe the information that echocardiograms and stethoscope can provide regarding heart function. Echocardiography is a non-invasive technique used to assess cardiac structure and function by the use of ultrasound. Echoes are used to listen for congestion in the lungs, irregular heartbeats and murmurs. [11] There are several types of echocardiograms; transthoracic (TTE) are the most common. A device called a probe or transducer is placed on the chest and high frequency sound waves are used to produce sounds and images of the heart. It picks up echoes of sound waves and transmits them as electrical impulses which are then converted to 2D or 3D moving pictures on the screen. A Doppler echocardiogram shows the movement of blood. If a clear picture cannot be formed a small amount of liquid can be injected via IV to give a better picture. [14] Echocardiograms show details of the chambers including size, volume and thickness of the walls which helps to identify certain disorders including hypertension, the pumping function can also be reviewed and this can show conditions such as cardiomyopathy. Echoes also help with diagnosis of heart valve disorders including those mentioned above. It identifies the basic structures of the valve including thickness and movement and shows any abnormalities such as calcification and scaring. The Doppler will show any leakage through the heart valves and if there is a restriction in blood flow. Echoes of mitral regurgitation will show a dilated left atrium and left ventricle and echoes of aortic Stenosis will show the thickened calcified leaflets. In cases of suspected endocarditis a transesophageal echo can be used instead to show high-quality images of the heart and its valves. It is slightly more invasive and a long tube is passed down the oesophagus. [15] A stethoscope is a non invasive diagnostic instrument used to listen to or auscultate a patients heart, lungs, pulse and abdomen. It can also be used to help check blood pressure by listening to blood flow restoration when the sphygmomanometer cuff is removed. The diaphragm is placed on the patients chest where it picks up vibrations and amplifies them as sounds to the earpieces going via a hollow tube. [16]http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Stethoscope_(PSF).png A healthy heart produces a double beat or lub dub with little other sound when the semi lunar valves open and close. A stethoscope helps detect a heart murmur which makes a whooshing sound after the heart beat, this can indicate serious other problems such as infective endocarditis. [17] [18] FIG.6 S Mutans adhering to surface of mitral valve Explain how oral derived bacterial flora can colonise heart valves Explain why the heart valves are susceptible to bacterial colonisation. Streptococcus mutans are a type of bacteria found in dental plaque of the oral cavity that is largely responsible for causing tooth decay and cavities via the process of demineralisation. However on occasion after dental treatment or from brushing the teeth if blood is exposed it can enter the blood stream and cause bacteraemia. Diseased Aortic Valve Endocarditis typically develops on surfaces of the heart, which have become rough and sticky after sustaining endothelial damage after being subject to turbulent blood flow. (In bicuspid valves blood flow is more turbulent and this creates a high pressure which makes the surface of the valve rough and more susceptible to bacterial colonisation). [19] Platelets and fibrin attach to the endochardium surface and form a platform which the bacteria can attach to; vegetation is now formed. This vegetation can damage the heart valves and affect how they open and close, or breakaway and cause complications in other areas of the body. The aortic and mitral valves of the left side of the heart are the most common to be affected. S mutants are thought to be responsible for 50% of all bacterial endocarditus cases. Staphylococci found on the skin can also cause it. [11] The risk of developing endocarditis is increased in a person who has already got artificial heart valves, general heart valve conditions, congenital birth defects, rheumatic fever and those with a lowered immune system. The problem with when bacteria colonises heart valves is that the valves dont have a designated blood supply to them so white blood cells are unable to fight the infection that is forming there. [20] [21]Full-size image (41 K) [22] FIG.7 Transthoracic echocardiogram (a) and apical four-chamber view (b) demonstrating a well circumscribed vegetation measuring 2 ÃÆ'- 1 cm, confined to the posterior mitral valve leaflet and impinging on the left atrium. Describe when prophylactic antibiotics should be prescribed prior to oral treatments. The term prophylactic antibiotics refer to when antibiotics are given prior to an event as a preventative measure to infection. Where rheumatic fever is still common, control and prevention will prevent rheumatic heart disease and associated endocarditis. [11]Previously people with heart valve conditions and artificial valves were thought to be at high risk of developing endocarditus when receiving dental treatment and other surgical operations so a treatment of antibiotics, usually penicillin were given prior to the procedure in question. Today however this practice is questioned as there were no placebo trials conducted. The large scale use of penicillin as a preventative measure comes with risks such as anaphylactic shock so now as recommended by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) it is mainly only offered to those patients who have an infection beforehand and those with artificial valves. Conclusion In conclusion to this PBL I now understand that the presence of bacteria in the blood can have serious consequences all over the body and not just at the site of entry. In answer to my uncles question about preventing infection it would be worth noting that meticulous oral and skin hygiene is significant in preventing such infections like endocarditis. With regards to oral hygiene a dentist should be seen at least every 6 months so any issues that may be present can be resolved before they develop further. Brushing twice a day, flossing and keeping ones toothbrush clean are always that can prevent bacteraemia.

Response paper to Ian Hodder’s “Ethics and Archaeology” Essay

Ian Hodder’s article, â€Å"Ethics and Archaeology: The Attempt at Eatalhoyuk,† basically discusses in detail the different roles that archaeologists assume during an excavation and also their ethical obligation and duty to the different communities on the site. Hodder claimed that the roles of archaeologists are not only limited to studying human culture through unearthing, recovering, documenting, analyzing, and interpreting remains, historical objects, artifacts, and landscapes. In addition, he also claimed that they do not also work solely to serve the interest of their benefactors and sponsors. Rather, Hodder stated that archaeologists have bigger roles and wider responsibilities to the different sectors of the excavation site. In short, aside from the interest of their sponsors and other organizations that fund the digs, Hodder believes that it is also the duty of archaeologists to reach to the multiple communities, interest groups, or stakeholders of any excavation site. In his paper, Hodder mainly focused his arguments on the Eatalhoyuk excavation site where is the director of the archaeological dig. According to him, the stakeholders of most sites can be narrowed to four: the politicians, the local residents, the New Age Goddess followers, and the artists. Hodder noted each of these communities has its own agenda or interest and it is part of the archaeologist’s duty to somehow satisfy them. One of the stakeholders that are common to almost all archaeological sites is the politicians or those in the seat of power. Generally, based on Hodder’s paper, all politicians support archaeological digs have their own agenda or interests. These may involve governors, mayors, or government representatives from the surrounding area of the site. Hodder claimed that although a lot of these politicians hail the archaeological site for its richness in history, culture, and identity, among others, their interests mainly lie on a single thing— widespread publicity. While the politicians’ desire to be seen on television or read on the newspapers is normal, Hodder stressed that it is the archaeologist’s role to limit the ways in which they use the site for their personal motives. He also stated that archaeologists should also verify every piece of information that a politician gives to the public about the site. For example, there are certain politicians who claim to be descendants of the site’s residents and speak about his or her origins. In this case, it is the archaeologists’ responsibility to verify these claims and ensure that they are true. Another community that has its own interests is the local residents. According to Hodder, in general, these residents, who have low incomes and limited education, mainly have practical concerns such as earning money for helping in the excavation. However, they are also concerned about the history of the sites and how they contributed to their identity. In this regard, Hodder stated in his paper that is archaeologists job to educate them about their cultural history and identity using solid evidence found on the digs. In turn, these local residents may relate their personal experiences from living in the site’s environment to tourists and researchers as these are helpful information. The New Age Goddess groups, on the other hand, mainly go to excavation sites, such as in Eatalhoyuk, to pray and to practice their beliefs which are in honor of their Goddess, which was a highly significant figure in the past. Their main concerns, according to Hodder, would mostly be regarding the history of the Goddess and the role of women in the Eatalhoyuk’s past. Thus, the archaeologists should try to address these concerns and provide evidence that would show how women lived in the communities of Eatalhoyuk thousands of years ago. By doing so, Hodder surmised that this would not only serve the Goddess’ groups interests but also avoid any misinformation regarding the site’s history. Finally, another sector that has shown significsnt interest in Eatalhoyuk is the artists group. Hodder noted that over the past years, more and more artists have arrived at Eatalhoyuk mainly to create works about the site. However, he claimed that there are also certain artists who help in the interpretation, reconstruction, and visualization of the art objects found in the site. Hodder stated that the main concern of this group is whether the objects unearthed during digs and excavations could be considered art or not. Meaning to say, most of these artists are particularly interested in identifying and describing the works of art recovered from sites. In this regard, the archaeologists involved, according to Hodder, should ensure that these works of art or aesthetic objects are verified to be genuine using past studies and other evidence found on the site. Certain artists also inquire about the role that art played in the history of Eatalhoyuk and it is the archaeologist’s duty to satisfy those questions to the best of his or her abilities. In short, what Hodder was trying to point out in his paper was that archeologists should always consider the agenda and interests of all the groups and sectors concerned during an excavation as it reaps greater rewards and is also more ethical than serving only personal interests. Personally, I agree with Hodder’s claims in his paper. His use of historical evidence and real life situations make his arguments very convincing. I also think it is unethical for archaeologists to go on digs mainly to become famous or serve their own interests only. Rather than setting one agenda, I believe it is important to work with different communities as exemplified by Hodder’s work in Eatalhoyuk as there are greater things at stake. Since archaeologist’s experiences firsthand what it’s like to be in an excavation site or dig, he or she should use his or her knowledge and skill to verify all the information and answer all the questions surrounding an archaeological site. This is not only professional obligation but also an ethical duty. Works Cited Hodder, Ian. â€Å"Ethics and Archaeology: The Attempt at Eatalhoyuk. † Near Easter Archaeology 65 No. 3 (2002): 174-181.

What Is College Readiness - 1907 Words

Introduction What is college readiness? When we say the word â€Å"college readiness â€Å"it means a lot of things to a lot of different people. In the state of Nevada, the definition of college readiness is â€Å"the pupil who graduates from high school demonstrates the foundational knowledge, skills, and qualities to succeed, without remediation, in workforce training, certification, and degree programs† (Crystal Abba, 2013, p. 3). I believe that content knowledge, key cognitive skills and foundational skills are very important and helps students at college level courses. Students arrive at colleges ready with different level of readiness. Peer tutoring is one the effective way help students to gain foundational and cognitive skills in a high school. Part 1: Research Report Research Purpose The purpose of the study is to reveal if peer tutoring by same age will improve the percent of students who met the ACT College Readiness Benchmark Scores. In Nevada, to be eligible to graduate from high school, all students must take Nevada’s College and Career Readiness (CCR) assessment in their high school junior year. All students in junior year must participate in the ACT CCR assessment to complete high school graduation requirement. Problem Statement and Description of Setting Recently, we have received the ACT profile report for the high school where I am working as a college counselor. The report focuses on student test performance in the context of college readiness, the number of ourShow MoreRelatedEvaluation Of A Student s College Readiness Essay1535 Words   |  7 Pagesdetermine a student’s college readiness. These pieces are not of equal importance, the majority of the weight is placed solely on the ACT score. The problem arises, however, with the question of accuracy. How can a test, specifically the ACT, depict a student’s success in college, especially when the assessment only tests students on memorized information? 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Yet, millions of high school graduates dive right in because that is what they are expected to do. We are setting them up for failure by having this unrealistic expectation that students can succeed unprepared. According to The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, nearly 60% of all first-time college students in the UnitedRead MoreState Wide Definition Of College And Career Readiness972 Words   |  4 Pagesall, the state wide definition of College and Career Readiness (CCR) is â€Å"level of preparation students’ needs to enroll and succeed in a credit-bearing, entry-level college courses (ACT, 2015).† The statics of Hispanics high school students passing math and reading is 22% (Moore, 2010). Hispanics students have a higher percentage when looking at the subjects individually with 37% in reading and 39% in math but this is not a true indicator demonstrating college completion (Moore, 2010). The overallRead MoreA Hybrid Educational System For Low Cost Essay1119 Words   |  5 Pagesassist students in engaging the material needed for success in college. Mattox (2011) mentioned his son’s enriched high school experience to describe how hybrid learning education can tailor to a student’s schedule and pace. With the online learning component, we can deliver a U.S. history course in a â€Å"video game format† (Mattox, 2011). The possibilities are endless. We can deliver educational methods to anyone, anytime, anywhere. But what about for students with special needs? An iPad app, Symbolstix

Surviving Domestic Violence - 2284 Words

An average of 1 in 4 or 25% of women in the United States has experienced physical or sexual abuse throughout an intimate affiliation at some point in time in their life (â€Å"Domestic Violence†, 2009). Among these individuals, nearly 2,000 do not make it and die of the resulted injuries they suffer from (â€Å"Women against Abuse†, 2012). When it comes to domestic violence, anyone can be a victim; the violence does not discriminate as to who will suffer from it no matter their sex, age, race, ethnicity, or financial background. Behaviors used by one person in a relationship to control the other are what define this dangerous act of crime. Although no one deserves this, it is important to learn of the precautions in order to help someone you love†¦show more content†¦Afraid or anxious to please their partner, the victim may keep quiet concerning their abuse and frequent injuries can be covered up as â€Å"accidents.† Because of this, work, school, or so cial occasions are missed with no explanation. These signs can help save a life that doesn’t deserve to die While abusive behavior and violence is an intentional decision made by the abuser to control the person of choice, it falls into a common pattern or cycle, repeating itself continuously until the individual seeks help or a result of death. Beginning with abuse, aggressive belittling or violent behavior takes place in the relationship giving the abuser automatic control. Once this step is done for the time being, he then feels guilty, not for what he has done, but about the possibility of being caught along with punishment and consequences that comes with it. 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Those laws usually spawn from specific cases in order to prevent the scenario from happeningRead MoreAn Argument Of A Woman Surviving Abuse Over The Course Of 15 Years1586 Words   |  7 PagesThis paper presents an integrative approach to a women surviving abuse over the course of 15 years. Working with racially victimized women who have experienced violence in their relationships. Domestic violence can be as simple as emotional abuse wit h words to something as severe as murder to murder suicide. For women who experience abuse in childhood or adulthood, the assumptions are that surviving includes seeking help. This article presents an exploratory study on the prevalence of victimization

F. Scott Fitzgerald s The Great Gatsby - 1720 Words

The American Dream is defined as the idea that all citizens of the United States of America are able to have an equal chance to gain success, and to prosper through hard work and determination. The American Dream is the driving force of evolution in humanity. It allows the aspiration of being able to do astonishing things, and proffers them prosperity in life. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald delves into the American Dream and it’s demise. Fitzgerald focuses on the character of Jay Gatsby to materialize the false image that the American Dream created in the 1920’s. Gatsby is the protagonist of the novel, and is famous for throwing massive parties regardless of the secret life that he lives. The narrator, Nick Carraway, dives into†¦show more content†¦After losing Daisy, Gatsby begins his search for the American Dream. Fitzgerald states that, The truth was that Jay Gatsby, of West Egg, Long Island, sprang from his Platonic conception of himself. He was a son of God—a phrase which, if it means anything, means just that—and he must be about His Father’s business, the service of a vast, vulgar, and meretricious beauty. So he invented just the sort of Jay Gatsby that a seventeen year old boy would be likely to invent, and to this conception he was faithful to the end (98). Nick uses a comparison between Gatsby and Jesus to highlight Gatsby’s recreation of himself. Gatsby transforms himself into what he envisions his life to be, creating a false persona in his chase of the American Dream. He hides behind Jay Gatsby, because James Gatz will not be able to achieve the American dream if he tries due to his background. Fitzgerald uses words like â€Å"truth†, â€Å"God†, â€Å"vulgar†, â€Å"meretricious†, and â€Å"faithful† to prove the lengths that Gatsby goes through to try to meet the American Dream. The initial time that Jay Gatsby is seen is when Nick Carraway spots him at the end of his dock. Nick watched Gatsby as, ...he stretched out his arms toward the dark water in a curious way, and, far as I was from him, I could have sworn he was trembling. Involuntarily I glanced seaward—and distinguished nothing except a single green light, minute and far away, that might have been the end of a dock (21). As Gatsby reaches out

Proposing a solution for global warming Free Essays

INTRODUCTION. The occurrence of increased average temperature in the earth’s surface air and water bodies in the recent decades and its projected continuation constitutes global warming.  These increments in temperatures are due to higher amounts of green gas concentrations, which warm the surface and lower atmosphere thereby increasing the green house effects  On the other hand, natural phenomena such as volcanoes and solar variation have also impacted on global warming(1). We will write a custom essay sample on Proposing a solution for global warming or any similar topic only for you Order Now Increased global temperatures results into other changes such as sea level rise, changes in precipitation patterns that result in floods, droughts and glacier retreat. These adverse effects of global warming have sparked off serious debate especially after Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic change (IPCC) projected climatic models that global surface temperatures are likely to increase to 6.40C (2.0 TO 110F) between 1990 and 2100.(2)The debate focuses on world scale regarding, what, if any, action should be taken to adapt to expected consequences or reduce future warming.  There is however a general agreement that affirmative action should be taken to avert further crisis.(3) To this effect, most governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing the green gas emissions, which cause global warming. The major challenge to this process is that industrialized nations who are the major contributors of green house gases such as America are reluctant to make this worthy commitment(4).  The main aim of Kyoto protocol is to reduce â€Å"Anthropogenic Climatic Change†(Human induced changes).It is believed that implementation of the Kyoto protocol will plummet these climatic changes. However, thermal inertia of the earth’s ocean and slow responses of other indirect effects would still cause further warming but at drastically reduced levels that are not very harmful (at 0.90f) as indicated by climatic changes studies.(5) The scientific consensus indicates levels of green house gases due to human activity. In 1824, Joseph Fourier discovered the green gas effect, and Svante Arrhenius investigated it quantitatively in 1896.Green house effect is the process by which absorption and emission by infrared radiation by atmospheric gases warms a planet’s atmosphere and its surface(6). The green house gases include natural ones such as water vapor, carbondioxide, methane, ozone and nitrous oxide. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon and methane have increased by 31% and 149% above pre-industrial revolution times since 1970.This occurrence has been attributed to fossil fuel burning and other anthropogenic causes such as deforestation.(7)Further, carbon dioxide levels are expected to increase due to ongoing fossil fuel burning processes around the globe. And land use change. This will depend on uncertain economic, technological and natural developments.(8) IPCC projected increase of methane from melting permafrost peat bogs in Siberia may lead to significant additional sources of green gas emissions.(9)  Thus, the effect of global warming including sea level rise, extreme weather events, stream flows, and change in rainfall patterns, increased deaths, displacements and increased economic losses projected due to extreme weather may even be exacerbated by increased population densities.(10) There is also expected reduction of ozone layer, intensity and frequency of hurricanes and worse, spread of diseases such as malaria and other epidemiological related ailments. A typical example is the current heavy rains experienced in Britain, which scientists have attributed to be, and effect of global warming.(11) The scientists, lead by Peter Stott at Hadley center, have used computer models in finding evidence to predict the course of global warming which all show heavy rainfall as it is documented in the local daily, The Independent. The effects of these rains have been disastrous with many Britons fleeing their homes.(12) Britain is currently making headlines in the world media; only because of the destructive results its citizens are experiencing from the heavy rains. The new Prime Minister called a crisis meeting with the top leadership of his government in response to this crisis.(13)  The rains have left many Britons desperate and in dire need of humanitarian assistance. Droughts attributed to global warming currents witnessed in several parts of the world such as Sub-Saharan Africa has left their citizens in famine and utter penury,(14) malnourished only to depend on aid. Surely the world cannot continue like this, it is only prudent, affirmative action is taken to avert this situation THE   Ã‚  SOLUTIONS. Just as it is called Global warming, it needs global solution, which calls for nothing other than global input. Participation of the whole globe is necessary without exclusion of any particular state or individual.  Efficiency in the use of energy (Use of renewable energy) is a major step to reduce global warming to reduce dependenc4 on oil and other fossil fuels that cause global warming. Currently, over 70% of USA electricity comes from fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil in contrast to only 2% from renewable energy sources(15). We should therefore focus on sources such as wind, solar, georthermal and bioenergy to generate our electricity instead of fossil fuel sources that increase global warming emissions. It is indeed true that these measures need radical step. Fortunately, we have the solutions, and the energy to implement them(16). What we lack is the will. The steps we make will in most cases save consumer’s money. Radical measures include total overhaul of our practices, where instead of Deforestration, we should plant trees in bare lands. Deforestation accounts for 20% of global warming. We should therefore protect threatened forests(17).  Most scientists believe postponing these measures would require much more input once severe consequences occur than if we had implemented them today. Pollution of the atmosphere needs to stop forthwill, it will become an irreversible damage and we had better stopped the practice. Carboon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for about 100 years.(18) Pollution practice would require more duration to reverse its effects on global warming, we better prevent this. Waste damping particularly in water bodies such as rivers needs to be addressed to avoid decomposition and subsequent release of carbon dioxide that would increase the green house effect in the atmosphere.(19) We must also strive to reduce the production of Chlorofluorocarbons that are powerful green house gases and ozone depleters .(20) For such a radical course, legislation control from the central government in different democracies and even globally is apparent. However, individual citizens must institute in themselves the required environmental standards to make it their own initiative to act on this end. For instance it would be wiser to use a push mower to cut your lawn instead of a power mower(21). Or have a low water-use machine. It is also wise to reduce the water heater thermostat heating degree. Buying energy efficient compact fluorescent bulbs for most used lights in the house is also important. A solar water heater system instead of electric or other fuel use is wiser move. In addition, an individual should drive a fuel-efficient car or a new hybrid gasoline electric vehicle. Insulating homes, installing energy efficient showerheads and even tuning up of the furnace are some of the basic steps individuals should implement to reduce global warming(22). Wise and committed person (not necessarily an environmentalist) should also contact his or her utility company for a home energy audit check for poor insulations or energy-inefficient places in the home. Other credible moves to reduce global warming by individuals include wrapping up the heater in an insulating jacket. Workers should also consider leaving their cars at home for some days and then walking to work or alternatively using public means of transport. Recycling of wastes newsprint, cardboard, glass and metals are also better alternatives to using non-renewable that emit green gases after use.(23) People should also consider buying food and other products with less packaging or reusable packaging instead of those in non-recyclable packaging. I believe most measures outlined above are but mere common sence, very achievable if we introduce discipline amongst ourselves.(24) Drastic reduction of global warming will have much more benefits that would outweigh possible risks involved in its implementation. We as humans must entitle ourselves to tackle the anthropogenic causes of global warming to treat the world we live in(25). The world’s leading scientific authority on global warming documents that the warming of the last 50 years has been due to anthropogenic (human caused) green house gases. The panel, after monitoring current trend of human approach to the envoiroment, further says the rise could be by 50C this century.(26) This would represent twice the entire warming after the last ice age 12000 years ago and it would take place in 100 years. Shocking! More confirmation to human destructive trends on the atmosphere were detailed in the recent statement by the American Geophysical Union that there is no known geological precedent for the transfer of Carbon from the Earth crust to the atmospheric carbon dioxide. Inequalities comparable to the burning of fossil fuels, without simultaneous changes in other parts of the carbon cycle and climate system( 27). We must therefore strive to achieve our aim through all means including institutionalization of global warming reduction programs such as developing systems to clean our electric power plants, currently using coal to produce electricity. This should be converted into plants that burn cleaner natural gas.(27) In addition, harnessing clean, abundant energy of the sun and wind is a viable measure to solving the global warming problem.  We have what it takes to make the globe a better place to live in. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The havoc global warming has caused the earth is perhaps the greatest. From its effects such as floods, droughts we have seen, read and understood the implications of destroying our atmosphere.(28) Millions of lives have been lost through its related effects.  Implementation of the possible solutions outlined in this essay, provides the framework for improving our livelihood in the globe.  For this worthy course, every single individual or nation on the globe must play an active role through involvement in the pragmatic measures aimed at alleviating global warming from the world.This should be done today. REFERENCES 1,2,3 .Revkin, Andrew C, Rise in Gases Unmatched by a history in ancient ice, The New York times, 2005-11-05 4-9Tans, Peter, Trends in Atmospheric carbon dioxide, Mauna Loa.National oceanicand Atmospheric Administration. 10-14Hansen, James; et al (2006-09-26) Global temperature Change PNAS 103 14288-14293 15-23Purse, Betham V, Philips (Feb 2005) Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe (2) 171-181 24-28Harte, John, et al, Shifts in Plant Dominance Control Carbon Cycle Response To Experimental Warming and widespread drought environmental research letters How to cite Proposing a solution for global warming, Essay examples

Jury Nullification and Its Effects on Black Americ Essay Example For Students

Jury Nullification and Its Effects on Black Americ Essay aIt is obvious that significant improvements have been made in the way that the criminal justice system deals with Blacks during the history of the United States. Blacks have not always been afforded a right to trial, not to mention a fair one. Additionally, for years, Blacks were unable to serve on juries, clearly affecting the way both Blacks and whites were tried. Much of this improvement has been achieved through various court decisions, and other improvements have been made through federal and state legislatures. Despite these facts, the development of the legal system with regard to race seems to have become stagnant. Few in this country would argue with the fact that the United States criminal justice system possesses discrepancies which adversely affect Blacks in this country. Numerous studies and articles have been composed on the many facets in which discrimination, or at least disparity, is obvious. Even whites are forced to admit that statistics indicate that the Black co mmunity is disproportionately affected by the American legal system. Controversy arises when the issue of possible causes of, and also solutions to, these variations are discussed. Although numerous articles and books have been published devising means by which to reduce variance within the system, the most recent, and probably most contentious, is that of Paul Butler, Associate Professor of Law, George Washington University Law School, and former Special Assistant United States Attorney in the District of Columbia. Butlers thesis, published in an article in the Yale Law Journal, is that for pragmatic and political reasons, the black community is better off when some nonviolent lawbreakers remain in the community rather than go to prison. The decision as to what kind of conduct by African-Americans ought to be punished is better made by African-Americans themselves.1 The means by which Butler proposes for Blacks to implement these decisions is termed jury nullification. By placing the race of the defendant above the facts of the case, and thus producing either an acquittal or a hung jury, Butler hopes that Blacks will be able to keep a large portion of Black ma les out of prison. Although several commentators have voiced criticisms with the ideas of Professor Butler, most of these criticisms focus on what is best for the American legal system, what legal precedents dictate, or as is most often the case, on what is right. It is, however, negligent to simply focus on these issues when examining the proposal of Professor Butler. Instead criticism and analysis must be based upon what is best for the Black community in this country. From this perspective it becomes clear that although race-based jury nullification has many attractive features, it must be modified to be truly beneficial. The first step in analyzing Butlers conception of jury nullification is to examine problems which Butler claims cause a need for a solution. These problems are flaws in the criminal justice system, intrinsic or otherwise, which present themselves as disparities in treatment of whites and Blacks. In any policy discussion, formulation of a plausible and effective solution clearly mus t be based upon the nature of the problem. Butler lists many examples of racism in the criminal justice system, but many are simply specific cases meant to illustrate his point. Although these cases are important, they are nearly impossible to discuss in a general examination of discrimination in the justice system because specific cases do not necessarily entail widespread discrimination. However, Butler does cite past and contemporary administration of the death penalty, disparities between punishments for white-collar crimes and punishments for other crimes, more severe penalties for crack cocaine users than for powder cocaine users, and the high rate of incarceration of African-American men.2 All arguments regarding Butlers thesis must be framed within the context of these problems, if not directly addressing them. Although Butler lists it last, he does note that the problem of high incarceration rates among Black males is the one noted most frequently. This problem is one which is essential to the discussion of jury nullification, and should be explored specifically for a number of reasons. First, whatever the reason, the number of Black men in prison is frighteningly high. One out of every twelve black males in their 20s is in prison or jail. Additionally, there are seven Black males in prison for every one white male.3 More than half of all black males are under the supervision of the justice system in some way.4 These two factors indicate a very important trend. A high number of black males are in prison, and many more black males are in prison than white males. This would definitely lead a reasonable person to assume at least some measure of discrimination within the criminal justice system. Secondly, and perhaps more significantly, the high rate of incarceration, upon further examination, leads to conclusions about its causes which then shed light on the discussion of jury nullification. The first step in examining this phenomenon is to examine what role racism plays in the high rate. There are several levels within the system at which discrimination could occur.The initial contact which anyone has with the justice system is with the police. The police are the institution which serve as a gateway to the legal system, and thus it is only logical to look here first. First, in 1984 almost 46% of those arrested for violent crimes were Black, while Blacks constitute only about 12% of the national population on the whole. 5 Overall, Blacks are twice as likely to be arrested when compared to whites.6 This data could be construed to mean simply that Blacks commit more crimes than whites. Although this may be true, the argument that police behavior is undistorted by racial discrimination flatly contradicts most studies, which reveal what many police officers freely admit: that police use race as an independently significant, if not determinative, factor in deciding whom to fo llow, detain, search, or arrest.7Despite the fact that discrimination may exist among police, the arrest figures still do not account for the vast disparity in incarceration rates. So other aspects of the criminal justice system must be examined. Another level in which discrimination can be claimed is that of the prosecutor. Because prosecutors have such enormous discretion when deciding which charges to file, which penalties to seek, and which cases to prosecute, there are many instances in which a prosecutors racism can be turned into discrimination against a defendant. Indeed, statistical studies indicate that prosecutors are more likely to pursue full prosecution, file more severe charges, and seek more stringent penalties in cases involving minority defendants than in cases involving nonminority defendants.8This discrimination becomes even more evident, and disturbing, when examining the death penalty. A study in Georgia found that in matched cases, prosecutors sought the death penalty in 70 percent of the cases in which a Black killed a white, and 15 percent of the cases in which a white killed a Black.9 Although these numbers cannot be extrapolated to indict the entire nations prosecutors, other figures do indicate vast disparity. In McCleskey v. Kemp, the defendant introduced a comprehensive, multiple regression analysis of the death penalty, done by Professor David Baldus. The study controlled for 230 independent variables, and indicated that race is by far the most important factor in whether a defendant receives the death penalty. It also found that Black killers of white victims are far more likely than white killers of Black victims to receive the death penalty.10 Although the Court upheld the death penalty, it only did so because of precedent which states that discrimination must be proved through demonstration of intent, and not just results.This disparity is reflected in the number of Black death row inmates. The NAACP Legal Defense fund report s that nearly 39 percent of the inmates on death row in the 35 states in which the death penalty is used. It also found that of all federal death row inmates, 67 percent are Black.11Despite the fact that these statistics are startling and important, they are insufficient to justify race-based jury nullification at face value. First, the studies of Dean Alfred Blumstein of Carnegie-Mellon and of Joan Petersilia of the RAND Corporation conclude that about 80 percent of the black overrepresentation in prison can be explained by differential involvement in crime and about 20 percent by subsequent racially discriminatory processes.12 Twenty percent is definitely significant and does deserve action, but it is not as high of a number as some might speculate, and therefore might dictate a more moderate solution. This will be discussed further later. Second, the crime and delinquency rates of incarceration, and rates of arrest and of victimization of those who move away from these slums are indistinguishable from whites of the same social class.13 This fact suggests that socioeconomic factors are very important in the existence of crime. Butler argues that the this fact is simply more impetus for the implementation of his plan. He asserts that discrimination and segregation deprive Blacks of adequate opportunity to improve their social and economic standing. He describes a radical critique, by which he states he is persuaded, in which the radical critic deduces that but for the (racist) environment, the African-American criminal would not be a criminal.14 Certainly this is a compelling argument. It is not clear, however, exactly how economic inequalities cause crime. Logic would certainly support the idea that Blacks, faced with stark living conditions, would commit crime either to strike back at whites or to attain more wealth. There are several problems with this idea, however. First, many crimes are unrelated, if not contrary, to acquisition of wealth. Not all murde rs are committed over material goods, and assuredly drug use in no way is helpful to the attainment of financial security. Second, to assume that crime is dictated by social or psychological purposes is to ignore that fact that in most cases commission of criminal acts is governed by the proximity, ease, and convenience of reward. In short, crime is an ill-conceived mechanism for the redistribution of wealth or for the extraction of revenge on ones oppressors, and no racial or ethnic group believes otherwise.15 Once again, the merits of jury nullification in alleviating these problems will be discussed, as will other solutions, later. The True Tragic Hero in Sophocles Antigone EssayThe question, then, is how can progress be made? One significant omission on Butlers part is a set of goals or requests which would make Butlers intentions clearly known. The only goal which Butler discusses is the release of Black males into the community. He even neglects analysis of possible changes which he would hope to instigate through jury nullification. Inclusion of specific reforms which would be desired would have two positive effects. First, it would help to avoid white backlash. By demonstrating that jury nullification had specific purposes, Butler would deflect criticism that the plan is simply a racially selfish scheme to keep Blacks from receiving punishment. Explicit goals would also make it clear to the public that there are discriminatory practices which Butler wishes to end. Second, only by explaining what jury nullification is meant to accomplish can the government be expected to reform the criminal justice system . This is especially true if the goals include public policy changes not directly related to the legal system, such as the elimination of discriminatory housing practices or augmentation of job training programs. Then, if jury nullification proves effective, and the government is forced to some concessions, Blacks will benefit much more than just from the release of Black males. Clearly, Blacks have much more to expect from public policy and the criminal justice system than they currently experience. Discrimination, to at least some extent, occurs at almost every level of the system. Although there is no way to be sure whether racism, socioeconomics, or some other mysterious factor is to blame for the high level of Black incarceration, clearly something ought to change. Jury nullification, despite some gaps in Butlers explanation and justification, is one of the only methods by which Blacks can hope to affect change. Even if Paul Butler accomplishes nothing else, he can reasonably expect to achieve one goal: raising awareness of race in criminal justice. As Butler states in the conclusion of his article, Perhaps, when policy makers acknowledge that race matters in criminal justice, the criminal law can benefit from the successes and failures of race consciousness in other areas of the law To get criminal justice past the middlepoint, I hope that the Essay wi ll facilitate a dialogue among all Americans in which the significance of race will not be dismissed or feared, but addressed.271 See Paul Butler, Racially Based Jury Nullification: Black Power in the Criminal Justice System, 105 Yale Law Review No. 3. This article was retrieved using LEXIS, thus no specific page numbers are available. The page range of the article was originally 677-725. 2 Id. 3 See Norval Morris, Race and Crime: What evidence is There That Race Influences Results in the Criminal Justice System?, 72 Judicature No.2, (1988) at 112. 4 Butler, supra note 1. 5 See Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 25 (106th edition, 1986). 6 Morris, supra note 3. 7 See 101 Harvard Law Review (1988)at 1472. 8 See Harvard Law Review at 1520. 9 Morris, supra note 3. 10 See McCleskey v. Kemp, 107 Supreme Court (1987). 11 See Coramae Richey Mann, Unequal Justice (1993) at 202-3. 12 Morris, supra note 3. 13 Morris, supra note 3. 14 Butler, supra note 1. 15 Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, A General Theory of Crime (1990), at 152. 16 Butler, supra note 1. 17 See William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: the inner city, the underclass, and public policy (1990), at 91. 18 See Kate Stith, The Government Interest in Criminal Law: Whose Interest Is It, Anyway?, Public Values in Constitutional Law (Stephen E. Gottlieb ed., 1993), at 137, 15819 Randall Kennedy, The State, Criminal Law, and Racial Discrimination: A Comment, 107 Harvard Law Review (1994), at 1262. 20 Morris, supra note 3. 21 Morris, supra note 3. 22 See Douglas S. Massey, Americas Apartheid and the Urban Underclass, Social Service Review (December 1994), at 480. 23 Butler, supra note 1. 24 Michael Vitiello, Reconsidering Rehabilitation, 65 Tulane Law Review (1991). 25 Benjamin A. Holden, Laurie P. Cohen, and Eleena De Lisser, Does Race Affect Juries? Injustice with Verdicts, Chicago Sun-Times (October 8, 1995) at 28. 26 Butler, supra note 1. 27 Butler, supra note 1. Category: Law